BPG Support Problems

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• Supports

This section presents issues in the conservation treatment, storage, and/or exhibition of paper (or other) supports. These issues may relate to inherent properties of the support fibers, support manufacture, and fabrication of the object including additives, or changes in the support resulting from natural aging processes, environmental and handling conditions, or conservation treatment.

The purpose of this page is to outline potential problems of paper supports and related materials which may influence the course of conservation treatments, storage, and exhibition of these materials, and suggest treatment approaches.

Original Compilers: Thea Burns (Jirat-Wasiutynski) and Karen Potje
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Copyright 2025. The AIC Wiki is a publication of the American Institute for Conservation (AIC). It is published as a convenience for the members of AIC. Publication does not endorse nor recommend any treatments, methods, or techniques described herein. Information on researching with and citing the wiki can be found on the Reference and Bibliography Protocols page.

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American Institute for Conservation (AIC). "BPG Support Problems." AIC Wiki. May 12, 2025. https://www.conservation-wiki.com/wiki/BPG_Support_Problems.

Inherent Physical Characteristics of Paper

Physical and chemical characteristics determine how successfully a support will respond to exhibition and/or conservation treatments and the degree to which they may be applied.

Fiber Type

Most paper fibers are composed of cellulose, the major structural component, and may contain associated materials such as hemicelluloses, lignins, etc. Fibers for papermaking are obtained directly from the plant or are derived from textile rags and cuttings. Sources include seed hairs (cotton), bast fibers (flax, hemp, jute, ramie, paper mulberry), wood (soft coniferous and hard broad-leaved trees), grasses (straw, bagasse, bamboo stalks), and leaf fibers (esparto, manila, sisal). (See Treatment Variations: Support Types: Fiber Type)

With experience and testing, the conservator can judge approximate fiber content and anticipate the success of treatments. Exact fiber identification may not be necessary before treatment, though approximate fiber identification may be reached after considering factors such as condition, context, and dating.

Color

(See also Colored Papers )

Color of paper has two aspects: the original, intended color as produced and the actual color which results from aging, etc. There is a subjective element in estimating the original color which may be aided by clues. Protected edges or inner surfaces may preserve a color closer to its original. Artists' use of white media or white highlights on the bare paper may suggest that original paper color was not white. If the highlighting is an alkaline material such as calcium carbonate, this substance may protect and preserve the original color which has faded or decolorized in the reserve areas. Sometimes original support color is evident on the verso behind opaque black washes which have shielded the paper from light damage. (KN) Sometimes colored corrective media can provide a clue to the original color of the sheet. (AM) Other guides could also be used to determine the original color of the paper. Paper sample books which have naturally aged papers protected from light and atmospheric pollutants can provide comparative material. (Especially for the 20th century, many comparative examples will exist for artists' papers and for multiples like prints. [KDB])

Original color is determined by:

• Natural tone of the fibers. There are differences among the different types of fibers (e.g., cotton and esparto) and also among the various qualities of the same fiber in their original condition. Even wood pulp fibers, the most regular of all supplies when obtained from the same source, will vary in color (Clapperton 1929, 121). Hemp is generally a darker color than cotton or flax; this partly explains its use in coarser papers. Wood pulp fibers are also darker than cotton or flax.

• Processing. Natural tone may also result from the processing of the fibers. In the processing of uncolored rags, fermentation can result in the yellowing of fibers; a yellow cast (creamy tint) distinguishes the finished sheet. This color, nonetheless, is its original color. For some old papers, lime-water soakings of the rags used in papermaking gave them a calcium boost which made them white. (SRA)

• Water purity. Impurities, such as iron and copper in the water used in papermaking, can alter color, making paper yellow. A high calcium content in the water can also whiten paper.

• Deliberate whitening/lightening of pulp using chemical bleaches.

• Additives to pulp or formed sheet (sizing, fillers, optical brighteners, dyes and pigments). For example, a yellowish cast can be imparted by a gelatin sizing.

Actual color of the artifact may be a result of darkening or lightening, or tonal shift from chemical changes caused by aging, mishandling, mold, exposure to light, or conservation treatment. For example, discoloration of size can occur through degradation produced by sulfuric acid, a by-product of alum in the size. Conservation treatments may attempt to correct the above changes where there is evidence of instability or degradation. However, it may not be possible to return to the original color with conservation treatment. One may have to accept some changes due to aging or due to inherent components of paper. The object's integrity and its specific needs should give direction to conservation treatments.

Weight

Weight is determined by thickness and density of the sheet and additives present. Paper made by machine today has a definite basis weight (Browning 1977, 16).

Weight may be altered by the removal of soluble or reactive additives or other inherent components (i.e., lignin, acid products, fillers, starch, optical brighteners, etc.) during treatment. A change of weight is not usually thought of as a significant factor in conservation treatment.

Thickness

Thickness is determined by the depth of fibers applied to the mold or web screen, lamination of wet or dry sheets, and by pressing/burnishing of sheets. Paper made by machine today has a standardized range of thicknesses (or caliper).

Thickness may be altered by swelling of fibers by water or alkaline solutions during aqueous treatment and/or extreme pressure during flattening. Lack of restraint during drying can result in a more porous, swollen sheet. (AD)

Strength

The strength of a paper sheet is determined by the strength of the individual fibers (which depends on fiber type and quality), and on the strength of the interaction between the individual fibers (which depends on fiber type and quality and fiber treatment during manufacture). According to Browning (1977, 16) "The bonds between fibers arise from the hydrogen bonding that occurs between hydroxyl groups on the surfaces of fibers which are physically in contact."

Strength is determined by:

• The type and degree of beating during the preparation of the pulp helps to determine the nature of fiber interaction.

• The manufacturing method of a paper sheet will determine the direction of the fibers: unidirectional handmade and machine made papers tear easily in the grain direction.

• The presence and type of sizing agents, coatings and loadings, etc., also effect support strength. For example, beater sizing will increase the overall strength of a sheet, whereas surface sizing will allow the core of the sheet to remain flexible while its surface is made firm (e.g., a requirement for papers used in modern lithographic printing processes which need a surface resistant to tackyink pick-up). Loadings will contribute no strength of their own; in fact, they interfere with the interaction of the fiber network and may thus decrease the overall strength of the sheet. Coatings and other treatments will also modify the strength of the paper.

Strength may be altered by chemical embrittlement due to aging, contact with acidic materials, aqueous treatment in poor quality water, highly alkaline treatment, or inappropriate bleaching methods, mechanical damage, and removal of sizes or coatings.

Strength may be altered from washing, addition of sizes, and other aqueous treatments. Washing in suitable water quality removes impurities which interrupt fiber-to-fiber bonding.

Absorbency

Absorbency is the degree of receptivity of a material to liquids or gasses. Paper responds to the relative humidity or wetness/dryness of its environment by absorbing or giving up moisture. This effect may or may not be uniform in all directions, depending in part upon the process by which the paper was manufactured (Roberts and Etherington 1982, 3).

Absorbency is influenced by the hygroscopic nature of cellulose, porosity of the paper structure, degree of maceration of the fibers, method of sheet formation, sheet thickness, sizing, sheet finishing, and the paper's state of preservation/deterioration.

Absorbency may be reduced by the addition of transparentizing agents, coatings, or sizing (gelatin, glue, starch, gums, resins, or cellulose ethers). Sizing is added specifically to improve resistance to moisture penetration. Waterleaf (blotting) paper has no sizing or coating; fluid media will bleed into it. The addition of alum to gelatin produces a harder, less water-soluble size upon drying. Absorbency can be reduced by removal of soluble deterioration products. (AM)

Absorbency may be increased by the removal of sizing or transparentizing agents during treatment. In contrast, sizing may be reactivated during float washing (see Cohn 1982). Solvent treatments, such as the use of ethanol as a wetting agent, may increase the rate of absorbency. Very deteriorated paper may wet out immediately due to cumulative aging properties such as the breakdown of sizing or wet out unevenly due to uneven deterioration. Often the outside edges of a sheet wet out more easily and mold damage, which deteriorates size, can create uneven wetting patterns. (KDB)

Dimensional Stability

Dimensional stability is the property of paper which relates to the consistency of its dimensions (Roberts and Etherington 1982, 77).

Dimensional stability is a function of:

• The absorbency of the particular fiber type. This property derives mainly from the nature of the specific type of chain molecule forming the fiber structure. If the molecules are hydrophilic (e.g., cotton) then the fiber will absorb moisture; if hydrophobic (e.g., some synthetics), the fiber will not. Absorption also depends on the ease of accessibility of the water molecules to all parts of the fiber i.e., the presence of crystalline versus amorphous areas. The more highly crystalline the structure, the less penetrable it will be. The hygro-expansivity of fibers depends on their water content. Dimensional changes in fibers (for example, a 1% length and 20% diameter change) will lead to dimensional changes in paper. Thus, because of their different nature and proportions, linen fibers (and hence sheets made of linen fibers) will react differently than ground wood fibers. Japanese papers have a wide variety of characteristics that influence dimensional stability (see Lining: Materials and Equipment).

• Degree of hydration of the fibers. The degree of hydration is increased by extensive beating.

• Length of the individual fibers and orientation of the fibers in the paper sheet. Plant morphology is responsible for the fact that natural fibers generally swell more in their diameter than in their length. Fiber orientation in paper is determined by the method of sheet formation. In a machine made paper the majority of the fibers are aligned in one direction by mechanical vibration, whereas the fibers in a handmade paper are generally oriented in all directions during sheet formation. When the fibers lie mainly in one direction, the paper when exposed to moisture will noticeably move (expand/contract) perpendicular to the grain (i.e., fiber orientation). Degraded papers generally show less dramatic dimensional changes (Lining: Factors to Consider).

• Thickness and density of the sheet.

• Presence or absence of sizing. Waterleaf paper will expand significantly with moisture penetration. The presence of Aquapel sizing (alkyl ketene dimer) in some modern papers will limit water penetration and expansion or contraction characteristics.

• Method of drying during manufacture.

• Media application.

• Presence of previous attachments or their adhesive residues.

Dimensional stability of a support may be altered by compaction of the fibers in some areas of the sheet (printing pressure – typeset, intaglio, woodblock, etc.), or conservation treatment – mending, lining, drying methods, etc.

Pliability

Pliability is the degree to which paper can "give"; (its flexibility and extendibility) without fiber breakage when bent. Pliability allows paper to be compressed by and retain the shape of a printing plate, drawing point, embossing tool, etc.

Pliability is determined by each fiber type's unique arrangement of fibrils. (For example, the helical winding of sheets of fibrils around an axis gives the cotton fiber superior pliability (Cumberbirch 1974, 147.) Pliability is also the result of the treatment of the fiber during preparation and manufacture.

Pliability may be altered (usually increased) by the presence of moisture in the environment, moisture content of the object at a given RH, sizing, or washing out impurities that interrupt fiber-to-fiber bonding. Washing alone may change prior “restraint” characteristics or prior drying characteristics. (AD) Improving pliability may be a reason to proceed with washing.

Pliability may be altered (usually decreased) by deterioration of components of the paper on aging or poorly chosen conservation treatments (see Factors to Consider: Inherent Physical Characteristics of Paper: Strength).

Surface Texture

Factors responsible for texture vary with the type, quality, date, and place of manufacture. Paper has a wide range of typical textures. For example, the typical texture of fifteenth and early sixteenth century German paper apparently resulted from the fact that the newly formed sheets received no further pressing after the initial pressing between felts, which left the texture of the felts visible (Robison 1977, 7). The paper texture of early woodcuts seems more evident because rougher, heavier papers tended to be used, etc. whereas intaglio prints are characterized by an embossed platemark and an enhanced smoothness, even silkiness, created within the plate area during printing (Robison 1977, 8). See also Treatment Variations: Support Types: Traditional Western Papers: Watercolor Papers.

Surface texture depends on fiber type, preparation, and finishing. Handmade papers' surface characteristics are determined by pulp preparation, mold design, and the texture of felts used during drying and pressing. Change in texture may be accomplished with further pressing, burnishing, glazing, etc. For machine made papers the nature of sheet formation, drying, pressing, or calendering determines surface texture. In general, the addition of sizes, fillers, and coatings increases smoothness by filling in the paper pores. With some modern machine made artists' papers, grain finishes are made by the application of special felts that impart a handmade look.

Surface texture may be altered by media, mechanical damage (tears, burns, creases, abrasions, stains), results of conservation treatments (aqueous treatments, alkaline treatments, lining and/or flattening methods, use of suction table, blistering during bleaching, burnishing during surface cleaning, etc.), or as the result of mounting/matting for display (overall mounting, dry mounting, etc.). For example, if the original sizing is removed in alkaline washing, the surface sheen of the paper may be altered and the fibers softened and loosened so that texture may be further modified upon drying.

Transparency, Translucency, or Opacity

Transparency and translucency in paper depend on the comparative absence of light reflecting or absorbing facets or in the fibers, minerals, or other components in/of paper. Treatments which cause fibers to pack more closely together and which eliminate or fill up air spaces, may produce transparency or translucency by allowing light rays to pass through the sheet relatively unbroken or unreflected; such treatments include fiber treatment during manufacture (fibrillation – extensive beating gives a more translucent sheet), the addition of starches, sizes, etc., and finish. (A more transparent paper results from treatment with iron rolls than with the super-calender because the former causes greater compression and reduction in bulk which enhances transparency in comparison with those rolled with the latter.) Coatings such as waxes, resins, and/or varnishes may produce a more transparent sheet.

Opacity may be produced by limited beating and pressing of paper which gives it bulk and a rougher surface, and by the addition of starches, mineral fillers, and/or by colors and certain dyes (Clapperton 1929, 306).

An undesirable transparentizing effect may result from aged pressure-sensitive tapes, oil-based stains, and some gummed taped adhesives.

Translucency or transparency may be decreased by the removal of transparentizing agents during treatment and by lining.

Chemical Stability

Sources of Acidity

One of the factors in the deterioration of paper is the presence of acidic components resulting from the degradation of the cellulose fiber or additives in paper manufacture. The anhydroglucose units in cellulose are joined by acetal linkages that are sensitive to acid hydrolysis.

• Fiber type and quality. For example, the fibers of ground wood papers contain lignin which is chemically unstable, especially when exposed to light, and which breaks down to produce acidic components that attack the cellulose. Newsprint may be as much as 80% or more ground wood pulp. This accounts for its inferior strength and color stability. (See Mechanical Wood Pulp Papers )

• Sizing, such as alum-rosin and gelatin with alum added, may become acidic. Gelatin is stable at a pH just below neutral. Alum is an agent added to both gelatin and rosin sizing. Alum was used increasingly by papermakers as early as the 1600s to aid in sheet formation. A by-product of the degradation of the alum used in the size is sulfuric acid. If excess alum is present it will contribute to the build-up of acidity in the sheet.

• Oxidation agents. Light, heat, and pollution provide agents necessary for chemical reactions within paper which increase the free hydrogen ion (H⁺) supply, therefore contributing to acid hydrolysis. Ozone is an oxidizing agent, but SO₂ and nitrous oxides promote acid hydrolysis. Nitrous oxides also promote ozone formation. (LP)

• Dyes or pigments: Certain colorants such as iron gall inks, and copper greens, can hasten degradation of cellulose. (See Factors to Consider: Strength)

• Coatings (i.e., gelatin, egg-white, varnishes, glues, etc. (See also Inherent Physical Characteristics of Paper: Surface Texture and Transparency, Translucency, or Opacity).

• Residues of bleaching agents will be found especially in low-grade rag (colored or dirty, worn rags that require bleaching) and non-rag pulps. Almost all early chemical bleaches contained chlorine residues, which often remained in the paper since they were difficult to remove with ordinary washing. Chlorine is highly reactive and can form hydrochloric acid when combined with moisture. This acid is also present in paper that has been bleached with chlorine as a restoration measure and inadequately rinsed in antichlors and water. Papers affected by chemical bleaching may be characterized by loss of strength and discoloration, either immediately or with time.

• Residues of chemical pulping agents (See Chemi-Mechanical and Semi-Mechanical Pulp Papers and Chemical Wood Pulp Papers)

• Fillers (See Loaded Papers)

• Other impurities

Sources of Alkalinity

• Some sources of alkalinity include residues of chemical pulping agents, sizing, coatings, fillers, water used in the papermaking process, pigments, deacidification and alkaline bathing, and some bleaching treatments.

Heavy Metal Ions

• Some transition metals, especially, copper (Cu), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn), may catalyze the degradation of cellulose in the presence of oxygen or moisture (Shahani and Hengemihle 1986). These metals can be introduced into the paper from the fiber source (wood, linen, etc.) which may contain trace elements from the ground in which it was grown, or by the equipment, water and chemicals used in paper manufacture (see Factors to Consider: Sensitivity of Paper to Its Environment) and by some conservation treatments. Their presence can cause problems in paper as it ages and is exposed to mold, high relative humidity, light, and pollution, and some conservation treatments (e.g., oxidative and reduction bleaching).

Sensitivity of Paper to Its Environment

The environment is one of the most important factors in the survival of works on paper. The major elements of the environment that affect paper's longevity are light, relative humidity, temperature, airborne pollutants, and housing materials.

Light

• All wavelengths of light, including ultraviolet and infrared radiation, affect various components of paper (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pigments and dyes, sizing, etc.). The mechanisms are complex (See Feller 1964). Ultraviolet radiation and the violet end of the visible spectrum can contribute the energy needed to initiate direct or indirect deteriorative chemical reactions in paper, especially when oxygen is present. These reactions also occur in the visible range. The results include color changes (fading, darkening) or actual structural breakdown of materials (Banks 1989, 80). The extent of photochemical deterioration depends upon the intensity of radiation, wavelength, and length of exposure.

Relative Humidity

Because paper is hygroscopic, changes in relative humidity (RH) affect the actual resultant moisture content of the paper (equilibrium moisture content or EMC). It is not feasible to routinely measure and control the actual EMC of individual works so ambient RH is measured and controlled instead (Banks 1989, 80).

• High RH, in combination with warm temperatures, promotes the biological deterioration of paper, encouraging the growth of mold or fungi, foxing, and/or insect attack. High RH also causes dimensional change, planar distortion, breakdown of paper size, and loss of paper strength. Rate of acid hydrolysis reaction increases in high humidity conditions; this phenomenon becomes increasingly significant with high acid content collections.(LP)

• Fluctuating moisture content generally causes stress to fibers as they alternately swell and contact. There is a lack of good information on the effects of cycling on both individual materials and composites; cycling RH may accelerate aging (Banks 1989, 81).

• Extremely low RH can reduce the flexibility of paper and cause dehydration, shrinkage and embrittlement of the specific fibers. It is not yet known, however, if for long-term permanence the presence of a high EMC is not more damaging than an extremely low RH (e.g., desert conditions).(AS)

Temperature

The rate of chemical reaction doubles with a 10°C increase in temperature. Different papers have different activation energies, derived by the Arrhenius equation, which make their rates of chemical reaction extremely difficult to calculate. Lower temperatures will slow deterioration. Biodeterioration will also be reduced. Excessive heat causes yellowing, drying and embrittlement of paper and may cause an increase in biological activity. Temperature also has an indirect effect through its influence on RH and equilibrium moisture content.

Airborne Pollutants

Air pollution, largely from the burning of fossil fuels, contains acid forming components in the form of solid particles and gases.

• Particulate matter (particles large enough to settle out and cause soiling); dust and oily grit may be acidic, soil paper, weaken it by abrasion, provide nutrients for mold and insects and may contain traces of metals (See Chemical Stability: Heavy Metal Ions). Fungal spores are also carried in airborne dust.

• Smaller particulates may include “acid dust,” comparable to “acid rain,” which could cause chemical deterioration of organic materials such as paper (Banks 1989, 82).

• Gaseous pollutants include gases (SO₂ and nitrous oxides which are a complex system of several nitrogen-based gases) that form acids in the presence of moisture and the oxidizing agent, ozone. These pollutants increase the acidity of materials that absorb them, thereby increasing their rate of acid hydrolysis and/or hastening their oxidation (Banks 1989, 80).

Housing Materials

Paper is a good absorber of many types of organic vapors and liquids when exposed to them. Acids are transmitted into the primary paper support from prolonged contact with acidic housing materials (wood, ground wood pulp paper and cardboard, unstable plastics, acidic adhesives) although, “apart from sulfuric acid, it is not known what the migrating acids in paper are....The chances of a solid migrating are less than for liquids, but gases can migrate very easily and aging organic materials produce a variety of volatile materials” (Daniels 1988, 95, 97). This acid will build-up over time and, like internally generated acidity, it will discolor, weaken and embrittle the paper support. Typical visible problems observed include matburn and discoloration from the transferred pattern of wood shingle, corrugated cardboard backing, newspaper clippings, etc., and overall darkening or edge darkening from poor quality boxes, folders, mats and/or frames. (See also Weidner 1967.)

Protection against air pollutants, transmitted acids, etc., is provided by housing/storing objects in neutral atmospheres, in direct contact with clean, acid-free materials (near or above-neutral and with constituents that ensure permanence), and by using adhesives which remain reversible upon drying and contain no impurities.

In showcases and other enclosures, natural or synthetic materials, unsealed woods, treated fabrics, formaldehyde, or other materials can injure by vapor or contact. Some materials that have been observed to cause problems include wood, resin-based paints or adhesives used in laminate boards, dyes and finishes used on textiles, adhesives used in construction, etc. (See Padfield 1982; Miles 1986; Ellis 1980).

Alteration of Paper Support upon Aging

Chemical Deterioration

• Discoloration of cellulose.
• Fading or color changes of dyes or pigments.
• Yellowing and embrittlement from oxidation of resins, oils, or waxes used as sizes or transparentizing agents. This discoloration and embrittlement may be irreversible since removal of discolored component may drastically alter transparency or feel of sheet.
• Embrittlement, due to shortening of polymer units (cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin) is caused by oxidation or depolymerization by hydrolysis; embrittlement of tranparentizing agents, sizings, or coatings; or presence or breakdown of other components of paper sheet.
• Discoloration of sizing.
• Stains, particularly foxing.

Physical Damage

Physical damage results from handling, accidents, poor quality storage and housing, including matting and framing. Natural physical weakening and embrittlement of some papers upon aging makes them more susceptible to physical damage.

Potential Alteration of Support During Handling

Chemical Deterioration

Stains, discoloration, oxidized finger prints.

Physical Damage

Tears, folds, creases, splits, holes, losses.

Potential Alteration of Support During Conservation Treatment

Chemical Deterioration

• Change in pH: acidity increase, alkalinity resulting from neutralization or buffering.
• Introduction of heavy metal ions due to wash water impurities.
• Possible removal of ions due to “ion-hungry” wash water.
• Oxidation of fibers (oxidative bleaching).

Physical Damage

• Changes in optical/aesthetic qualities (color, luster, translucence, opacity, reflectance).
• Mechanical changes to paper surface (abrasion, compacting, lifting of fibers, skinning, local or general flattening of texture, surface or interior “gritting” from crystallization of alkaline solutions, i.e., calcium carbonate). (AS)
• Changes in local or general permeability to aqueous and nonaqueous solutions and in sensitivity to atmospheric humidity.
• Alteration of sheet thickness by change in laminar structure (linings, backing removals, mends).
• Change in flexibility.
• Addition or removal of sizings, fixatives, coatings.
• Change in dimensions from aqueous treatments.

Relationship of Media to Support

(See Media Problems)

• Media may discolor and/or degrade paper (e.g., highly acidic media like iron gall ink, verdigris and acidic collage materials; oil paint and oil binder of some printing inks).
• Media may protect paper by buffering against acidity or forming physical barrier against light or acidic materials.
• Degradation of support may physically endanger media (e.g., shrinkage, expansion, wrinkling, or mechanical damage of paper causing loss of media).
• Degradation of support may chemically harm media (e.g., effect of acidic paper on pH-sensitive pigments in dry state or during aqueous treatment).
• Change in color and tonal relationships of media and support due to discoloration of support (darkening, yellowing, bleaching, fading or color change of dyes and pigments, stains).
• Compatibility of paper and media (e.g., toothed surface will trap powdery media like pastels and charcoal).
• Compacting of paper due to pressure of printing techniques or resistance to moisture by media may cause local differences in absorbency of sheet and of dimensional response.

Fiber Type

Cotton Fibers, Linters and Rags

Cotton textiles, made from long cotton seed hair fibers, were generally used as a fiber source for historic fine papers from about 1800. “Occidental papers from before 1800 which are described as `rag' papers are mostly linen-based with hemp fibers” (Collings and Milner, 1984, 59). However, before 1800 cotton may occasionally be found in coarse papers such as brown wrapping paper. Paper made from cotton cuttings and rags was inherently strong and durable. The characteristic twisted corkscrew shape of the relatively thin-walled and wide-lumened cotton fibers produced bulk and opacity in paper as well as softness. Cotton fibers do not pack closely together in the formed sheet as flatter fibers do (Clapperton 1929, 3). In addition, the quality and previous history of cotton and other rags (their age, cleanliness, presence of other fibers, fillers, dyestuffs, etc.) directly influence the properties of the paper. For example, the cellulose in very degraded rags may have a low degree of polymerization and the resulting paper will be weaker and less permanent. When new, cotton fiber pulps are almost 100% pure cellulose; the papers produced from them can be of high strength and resistant to aging (Collings and Milner 1984, 61). The cotton fiber is difficult to fibrillate in the beating stage of papermaking because of its highly parallel fibril orientation. In general, the finished cotton fiber paper sheet will be less stiff and strong than a linen rag fiber sheet where fibrillation occurs readily (see Flax/Linen under Fiber Type ). Although the cotton fibers will not lie closely together because of their twisted configuration, in sheet formation on the mold or machine wire, they do become interlocked which adds strength, flexibility and bulk to the paper (Clapperton 1929, 3). Because textile rags are expensive and scarce, today, many fine rag papers are made from cotton linters, which have a shorter fiber length. Cotton linters are the fine, silty fibers which remain adhered to the cotton seed after ginning and are a mixture of long and short fibers. Papers made from cotton linters are characterized by softness, bulk, absorbency and, often, low strength.

Flax/Linen (Linum usitatissimum)

Flax, a bast fiber, is essentially a textile fiber. For economic reasons flax fibers used in papermaking are generally in the processed form of linen rags and cuttings. Because flax is harvested for its fiber before extensive lignification develops, the lignin content is relatively low compared to other bast fibers. The fibers are separated from the woody matter by a selective biological method (fermentation), called retting. The relatively thick, straight walls and narrow lumen of flax makes it a stiffer and stronger fiber than cotton, which has a thinner cell wall and relatively wider lumen. When beaten during papermaking, the structure of the flax fiber allows it to splinter easily along its length, releasing the small fibrils. The fibrils interlock and impart great strength when the paper sheet is formed (Hills 1988, 54). The amount of fibrillation of the flax fibers is a function of the nature and amount of beating. The quality of the fibers and of the resulting sheet are subject to the same variables as cotton. Generally a linen fiber sheet will be stiffer and stronger than a sheet made from cotton which does not readily fibrillate. (See Cotton Fibers, Linters and Rags under Fiber Type )

After about 1800, supplies of cotton waste and rags increased, relative to linen, and rag papers from this period may contain both linen and cotton. Today linen fiber is seldom used alone for papermaking because of its relative scarcity and expense. Also its extreme ‘wetness’ in working renders it practically impossible to make strong, thick, or even medium-weight papers on a Fourdrinier machine (Clapperton 1929, 5). Its great value is in combination with cotton to stiffen and strengthen papers made with cotton fibers.

Hemp (cannabis sativa)

Hemp is an Asiatic herb which yields a tough bast fiber when retted. Hemp fibers exhibit properties similar to those of linen and the two are difficult to distinguish by “ordinary” examination (Roberts and Etherington 1982, 131). For example, during stock preparation hemp fibers fibrillate well, though less readily than linen. Originally, the papermaker obtained hemp principally from rope, cordage, and textile sources. In Europe, hemp was used in papers to capitalize on fiber strength, pliability and durability; it was rarely bleached and almost never used alone. Hemp is generally of a lower grade than linen and is mainly used in coarser paper (Krill 1987, 13). The term “hemp” has also come to be used in a generic sense as fiber and is then proceeded by an adjective (e.g., Manila hemp, Sisal hemp are classified as leaf fibers, see Leaf Fibers under Fiber Type.

Jute

A bast fiber was an important raw material for papermaking, especially in the mid-nineteenth century. The use of jute fibers in European papermaking was first described at the end of the eighteenth century (Hunter 1978, 394, 522). Its use has declined in recent decades, though Hunter (1978, 223) notes the presence of jute fibers in modern Indian papers. Jute is a lignified fiber and is coarse, rough, stiff, and brown in color. It cannot be satisfactorily bleached. Jute ropes, strings, bagging and other cuttings were used to make brown wrapping papers; little chemical treatment of the fibers was required because these papers were intended to be cheap and their color and coarseness were unimportant. Because of its high lignin content, paper made from jute darkens if exposed to light and atmospheric pollution.

Ramie

A bast fiber, also called China Grass or Rhea, ramie is cultivated in tropical countries. The fiber is removed from the woody stalks by a process of decortication which may include peeling, soaking, and/or scraping. The long fiber strands are then dried and bleached. Ramie fiber is white, lustrous and strong; it is durable, stiff and coarse, lacking in flexibility and cohesion. Ramie absorbs water readily. The cells' fibers are very long and thick walled (Cook 1984, 22–24). Ramie has been used since ancient times but only in modern times on a commercial scale for textiles and in papermaking.

Straw

Straw, a bast fiber, was a source of fibrous raw material for papermaking in ancient China (Hunter 1978, 375). Straw was not used in the West until the eighteenth century (cereal straw was used by Koops in his experimental papers around 1800). The use of cereal straw (wheat, barley, rye, oats, rice, etc.) for Western papermaking was commercialized in the U.S. before wood - ca. 1829 (Hunter 1978, 395). It was used, in particular, for printing papers, wallpaper, wrapping paper, and binders' board. Straw remained a major source of fibers in Europe and North America until the 1920s when the wood pulp industry was firmly established. It is still an important source of fiber in countries where grain is grown in sufficient quantities, where pulpwood supplies are scarce, and imported wood pulp is too expensive. Although, some countries, such as in the Orient, import pulp rather than use grain.

Bast cells are the principal sources of the fibers; they derive mainly from the pith of the stem. The good paper formation characteristics of straw fibers result from their relatively high ratio of average length to diameter. Wheat and rye are preferred; they produce stronger and stiffer papers than other straws. “Straw, when digested with caustic soda under pressure yields, if bleached, a white pulp paper, almost pure cellulose” (Hunter 1978, 395). The resulting fibers are fine, brittle and shorter than those obtained from wood. The short fibered paper produced from straw pulps has low tear strength and is often strengthened with an admixture of longer fibered stock. Today, bleached straw pulp yields fine writing and printing papers while unbleached straw pulp is used for boards, corrugating medium and packaging paper (Casey 1980, 525).

Wood

Papermaking fibers obtained from wood differ in appearance and properties depending on their source.

Softwood and hardwood trees, treated in different ways, give wood fibers suitable for making almost any kind of paper. Cotton fibers blend extremely well with fibers of chemical wood and useful papers of all types are made from a mixture of the two (Clapperton 1929, 96).

Wood pulps made by the soda or sulfate process have better bulking qualities than sulfite pulp.

Wood fibers do not have the structure or the stability to produce extensive fibrillation; the fibers are “brushed in beating so that they are roughened by the partial fibrillation of their surfaces. Beating also clears fiber clusters” (Clapperton 1929, 98).

Mechanical wood pulp

A raw wood ground with water into “sawdust”; no chemical treatment is undertaken to remove impurities (lignins, etc.). The fibers are short and brittle and are often joined in clumps by medullary rays. Mechanical wood pulps are used in newsprint, cheap printing papers, cheap colored boards, etc.

Chemical wood pulp

The fibers are fairly long (length varies) although shorter than cotton or linen fibers. Chemical wood pulp fibers are wide relative to their length, flat, sometimes twisted, and their walls are usually “pitted” with small pores or holes.

Softwood fibers

The fibers are longer and stronger than hardwood fibers. Softwood fibers made into pulp by the Kraft or sulfate process “stand hard beating and become very ‘wet’ and make wonderfully strong wrapping bag and (other) papers” (Clapperton 1929).

Hardwood fibers

The fibers resemble esparto in that they are short and fine, but they are much flatter and do not give such good bulk for the same finish and substance. They can give good printing papers when treated by the soda process. Today chemi-mechanical and semi-mechanical processes are also used. The former was introduced in the 1950s and the latter in the 1920s. Their advantages include the ability to use hardwoods and to bleach mechanical wood. Processes include the gentle use of chemicals followed by harsh mechanical or vice-versa. Under the microscope, pulps by these two processes appear more like chemical processed pulps than ground wood pulps (Britt 1970, 197–208).

Leaf Fibers

Esparto

Leaf fibers from esparto, a coarse grass native to Southern Spain and North Africa, are short and fine, and are the smallest in diameter of the common papermaking fibers. Though very short, normally less than 3 mm in length with an average length of 1.5 mm, they have thick walls and can be beaten to give bulk and opacity to paper. For this reason they are found in “featherweight” printing papers characterized by a regular composition, close silky texture, and smooth uniform surface. Esparto paper is dimensionally stable; when esparto fibers are wetted they expand less than most other fibers. “This made (esparto) especially suitable for manufacturing high-quality printing papers....The short fiber length gave clarity to watermarks so it became popular for good writing papers too” (Hills 1988, 138). Esparto was also commonly used as a body paper for surface coating (Collings and Milner 1982/83, 26). It has a natural affinity for coating materials which gives it a superior surface for halftone reproductions (Roberts and Etherington 1982, 12). Because esparto fibers are so short, they impart no strength to papers. “For added strength esparto might be blended with a portion of longer, stronger fibers, such as rags or some wood pulps” (Hills 1988, 138). Esparto fibers were used primarily in Great Britain, where they were introduced in 1850 (Roberts and Etherington 1982, 93). They were first imported in quantity to the U.S. in the 1850s. Around 1900 imports of esparto diminished, in part because of the cost of transporting the grass or pulp but “largely due to the growing challenge of wood pulp...Today (it) has almost disappeared from the papermaking scene” (Hills 1988, 42). A number of pulp mills are in operation today in esparto growing areas. Because of the drastic chemical treatment required to separate esparto fibers from the non-fibrous plant elements and the severity of the bleaching process, the fiber, as prepared for papermaking, is severely degraded.

Abaca or Manila hemp (Musa textilis)

Abaca, a type of plantain or banana native to the Philippines and found in Central and South America, yields fibers suitable for direct use in papermaking, particularly for papers where strength is required. The outer part of the leaf sheath yields the best fibers for papermaking. “The fibers range in length from 3 to 12 mm, the average being 6 mm....They taper very gradually towards the ends; the central canal is large and the fine cross-hatchings are numerous” (Roberts and Etherington 1982, 3)

Sisal or Sisal hemp (Agave sisalana or A. rigida)

A West Indian plant whose leaves yield a fiber used in cord. Cord waste is used as a fiber source for some papers (Roberts and Etherington 1982, 237).

Wool

The use of woolen rags mixed with coarse linen for making brown paper in the 17th and mid-18th centuries is noted in Krill (1987, 14, 51).

Fibers from Waste Paper/Recycled Paper

Waste paper was used for several centuries for brown paper and board. “Matthias Koops tried to use it for making good quality paper around 1800” (Hills 1988, 208). Waste paper is an important “raw” material for paper mills today. As better ways developed for grading the waste, treating it to remove printing inks and colors, and cleaning it to remove dirt and waste, higher quality papers may be made.

Waste paper can vary widely in its characteristics (printed, filled, wood pulp, chemical pulp; wire staples, thread, glues, etc.). “Dry waste paper must be converted into a wet papermaking pulp, free from bundles of unseparated fibers and free from all impurities” (Hills 1988, 208). There are various ways to do this depending on the type of waste paper. Basically, the waste is churned up into a wet pulp mix, large impurities (plastic bags, paper clips) and sand are removed, and the waste disintegrated to separate the fibers. The fibers are subjected to further cleaning and, if necessary, de-inking operations and removal of fillers (such as clay). The pulp is pressed to extract dirty water and then stored. The fibers are combined later with clean water and virgin wood pulp to be made into paper in the usual way.

Japanese Papermaking Fibers

The three fibers generally used in Japan are kozo, mitsumata and gampi fibers; rice straw and bamboo are also traditional fibers in Japanese papermaking, their use, however, has been restricted. The term “rice paper” has been a misnomer for Japanese papers. (See Rice Paper Plant under Fiber Type)

Kozo, mitsumata and gampi are bast fibers obtained from the inner, white bark fibers of young mulberry trees. Despite their high price (Barrett 1979, 17), which is a result, in part, of the difficulties involved in getting the fiber from nature into a state of readiness for papermaking, these fibers have many advantages for papermaking. Even after beating, the fibers remain very long (3–12 mm) compared to 4 mm maximum for beaten wood pulp fibers. The fibers are very regular in thickness along their length; this regularity is responsible for the softness and sheen characteristic of Japanese papers. Strong, yet thin, papers can be produced because of the slender fiber shape, thin fiber walls and large amounts of attached, glue-like hemicelluloses.

Kozo

Kozo (commonly “paper mulberry”) fibers, used in Japan from the late eighth century, are the longest of the Japanese papermaking fibers – up to 12 mm in length. The finished paper sheet can be very strong and tough. Kozo is the most widely used of all the Japanese fibers and accounts for about 90% of the bast fiber produced in Japan for papermaking (Barrett 1979, 18). Traditionally kozo was the paper used for woodblock prints.

Mitsumata

Mitsumata fibers are shorter than kozo (approximately 3 mm) and produce a shinier, slightly denser and crisper paper. Mitsumata was not used for papermaking in Japan until the late sixteenth century.

Gampi

Gampi fibers average 4 mm in length. The plant, unlike kozo and mitsumata, grows too slowly for cultivation to be economical and the bark is harvested from the wild. Gampi was used in Japan beginning in the late eighth century. Gampi fibers are considered by some to produce the finest of the three papers in unmatched translucency, luster and character (Barrett 1979, 21). (See Japanese Papers)

Papyrus

Fiber quality is affected by the age of the plant when harvested, whether the plant is wild or cultivated, which portion of the stem is used, and the care taken in harvesting and manufacture (whether the prepared strips are sun bleached or not, the length of time fibers are soaked and the quality of the water used, amount of refinement of the fibers achieved by rolling them, whether or not strips used to make one sheet are cut from the same stem). (For more detail see Bell 1985, 29 and/or Papyrus)

Tapa

"Tapa at its most refined state was white, cream or reddish brown and thin and fine textured. Since the intended use for the tapa product varied greatly, properties considered desirable were equally variable"; (Bell 1985, 65).

Fiber quality (color, fineness/coarseness) is affected by climate, age and location within the plant from which fibers were taken, whether fibers are from a wild or cultivated source, care taken in cultivation, inherent fiber characteristics (length, width), and care taken in preparing the fibers (extent to which non-essential bark layers are removed, length of soaking before beating, whether lamination is by beating or pasting). (Bell 1985, 65 and Tapa)

Amate

Amate is the term used in Central America to describe contemporary paper made from various kinds of mulberry trees. “Amate” is also used to describe the trees in a very general way. The term is derived from the Nahuatl word “amatl” which described a pounded, bark “paper” made in the preconquest period in central America. Amatl “paper” has a very ancient tradition and is known to have been made at least as early as the first century. Conquest period literature describes this paper as well as “metl,” a paper made from the majirey cactus (an agave plant, like the century plant cactus) (Sahagun 1963). The amatl paper was made from the inner bark of various mulberry tree varieties. The bark was soaked and then pounded with stones to make sheets of paper. Solutions such as limewater have been suggested as possible ancient soaking processes for this paper (Lenz 1961).

Newly made amate is also a pounded “paper,” however, there are many different types produced and the quality varies. Some contemporary papermakers soak the fibers in alkaline solutions and/or bleaches before making the sheets. High quality papers are still made in the village of San Pablito, Mexico. (See Lenz 1961 or Bell 1985 for a description of the process.)

Rice Paper Plant (Tetrapanax papyriferus)

The soft, spongy pith inside the larger branches or stems of the rice paper plant is used to make rice plant or pith “paper.” The pith is removed from the branches of this shrub and then cut like wood veneer from a log (Bell 1985, 105). Fiber and paper quality will be affected by the precise source of the pith (branch or stem), the age of the plant, and the care taken in cutting and drying the pith (Bell 1985, 114).

The pith sheet is white, translucent, rather fragile and velvety smooth; it is made only in small sheets. (See Pith/Rice "Paper")

Support Types

The different supports have their own pages, see below.

Traditional Western Papers

See the BPG Western Papers page

Asian Papers

See BPG Asian Papers page

Composite Structures

See BPG Composite Structures

Over-Sized/Three-Dimensional/Unusual Shapes

See BPG Unusual Paper Supports page

Traditional Non-Paper Supports

See BPG Papyrus

See BPG Parchment

See BPG Non Paper Supports

Bibliography

General

The American Institute for the Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. BPG Bleaching. AIC Wiki.

The American Institute for the Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. BPG Backing Removal. AIC Wiki.

The American Institute for the Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. BPG Lining. AIC Wiki.

The American Institute for the Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. BPG Matting and Framing. AIC Wiki.

Balston, Thomas. 1957. James Watman: Father & Son. London : Methuen & Co., Ltd.

Bachmann, Konstanze. 1983. "The Treatment of Transparent Papers: A Review." The Book and Paper Group Annual 2: 3-14. Accessed May 26, 2020.

Extensive earlier bibliography.

Banks, Paul. 1989. "Environmental Conditions for the Storage of Paper-Based Records." Proceedings of Conservation in Archives: International Symposium, Ottawa, Canada. Paris : International Council on Archives. 77-88.

Boston Museum of Fine Arts. 1969. "Rembrandt: Experimental Etcher." Boston: Boston Museum of Fine Arts.

Britt, Kenneth W. 1980. Handbook of Pulp and Paper Technology: 2nd edition. New York : Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.

Browning, B.L. 1977. Analysis of Paper: 2nd edition, revised and expanded. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Byers, W. 1971. "Cracking at the Fold Problems." Graphic Arts Monthly 43(5): 104-110.

Casey, James P. 1981. Pulp and Paper: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, 3rd ed. New York : John Wiley and Sons. 1515-1546.

Clapperton, Robert Henderson and William Henderson. 1929. Modern Papermaking. London : The Waverly Book Co. Ltd.

Cohn, Marjorie B. 1982. "A Hazard of Float Washing: Regeneration of Paper Sizing." "Book and Paper Group Postprints." Washington, DC : AIC.

Collings, Thomas and Derek Milner. 1984. "The Nature and Identification of Cotton Paper-Making Fibers in Paper." The Paper Conservator 8: 59-71.

Collings, Thomas and Derek Milner. 1982. "The Identification of Non-Wood Paper Making Fibers: Part 3." The Paper Conservator 7: 24-27.

Esparto and Manila Hemp.

Cook, J.G. 1984. "Ramie." Handbook of Textile Fibers Vol. 1 - Natural Fibers. Durham : Merrow. 22-24.

Cumberbirch, R. J. E. 1974. '"Why A Fiber Works." The Shirley Link 147.

Daniels, Vincent.1988. "The Discoloration of Paper on Aging." The Paper Conservator 12: 93-100.

Daniels, Vincent and Lore E. Fleming. 1994. The Cockling and Curling of Paper in Museums. In Symposium 88: The Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works on Paper. Ottawa: The Canadian Conservation Institute.

Dwan, Antoinette. 1989. "A Method for Examining and Classifying Japanese Papers Used by Artists in the Late Nineteenth Century." Conservation Research. Washington DC : The National Gallery of Art. 105-131.

Ellis, Margaret Holben. 1980. "A Practical Approach to Drawings Storage." Drawing 1(6) 132-134.

Ellis, Margaret Holben. 1987. The Care of Prints and Drawings. Nashville, Tennessee : AASLH Press.

Feller, Robert L. 1964. "The Deteriorating Effect of Light on Museum Objects: Principles of Photochemistry, the Effect on Varnishes and Paint Vehicles and on Paper." Museum News 43(Technical Supplement 3): 1-8.

Hills, Richard L. 1988. Papermaking in Britain 1488-1988: A Short History. London : The Athlone Press.

Hunter, Dard. 1978. Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft. New York : Dover Publications, Inc.

Keyes, Keiko Mizushima. 1987. "The Unique Qualities of Paper as an Artifact in Conservation Treatment." The Paper Conservator 3(1): 4-8.

Krill, John. 1987. English Artists Paper. London : Trefoil Publications Ltd.

Labarre, Emile Joseph. 1937. A Dictionary of Paper and Paper-Making Terms. Amsterdam : Swets and Zeitlinger.

Long, Paulette, ed. 1979. Paper - Art and Technology. San Francisco : World Print Council.

McAusland, Jane and Phillip Stevens. 1979. "Techniques of Lining for the Support of Fragile Works of Art on Paper." The Paper Conservator 4: 33-44.

Meder, Joseph. 1978. The Mastery of Drawing. Translated and revised by Winslow Ames. New York : Abaris Books, Inc.

Miles, Catherine E. 1986. "Wood Coatings for Display and Storage Cases." Studies in Conservation 31(3): 114-124.

Padfield, Tim, David Erhardt, and Walter Hopwood. 1982. "Trouble in Store." Studies in Conservation 27(Supplement-1): 24-27

Priest, D.J. 1989. "Modern Paper." Modern Art: The Restoration and Techniques of Modern Paper and Prints. London : UKIC. 5-7.

Roberts, Matt T. and Don Etherington. 1982. Bookbinding and the Conservation of Books: A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology. Washington, DC : Library of Congress. Accessed May 28, 2020.

Shahani, Chandru J. and Frank H. Hengemihle. 1986. "The Influence of Copper and Iron on the Permanence of Paper." In Historic Textile and Paper Materials: Conservation and Characterization. Washington, DC : American Chemical Society. 386-410.

van der Reyden, Dianne. 1988. "Technology, and Treatment of a Folding Screen: Comparison of Oriental and Western Techniques." in The Conservation of Far Eastern Art: Preprints of Contributions to the Kvoto Congress. London : IIC. 64-68. Accessed May 28, 2020.

Weidner, Marilyn. 1967. "Damage and Deterioration of Art on Paper Due to Ignorance and the Use of Faulty Materials." Studies in Conservation 12(1): 5-24.

Watrous, James. 1957. "The Craft of Old Master Drawings." Madison : University of Wisconsin Press.

Wehlte, Kurt. 1982. "The Materials and Techniques of Painting." New York : Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Western Papers

See BPG Western Papers Reference page for a bibliography on the following topics:

• Mechanical Wood Pulp Papers
• Colored Papers
• Loaded Papers
• Artists' Coated (Prepared)
• Coated Papers
• Tissue/Tracing Papers on tracing paper.
• Cardboard/Artist's Board/Illustration Board
• Watercolor Papers
• Artists' Printing Papers

Asian Papers

See BPG Asian Papers Reference page for a bibliography on the following topics:

• Asian Papers
• Japanese Papers

Composite Structures

See BPG Composite Structures Reference page for a bibliography on the following topics:

• Collé Paper
• Papier Marouflage
• Compound Drawings
• Collage
• Restrained Papers

Wallpaper

(See also General References)

AIC. "Conservation of Wallpaper." Special issue of The Journal of the American Institute of Conservation 20(2).

Clise, Diana, & Bryan Draper. 2007. “Jean Zuber et Compagnie’s Le Paysage à Chasses at Willow Wall: Removal, Treatment, and Reinstallationof an Early Nineteenth-Century Scenic Wallpaper.” The Book and Paper Group Annual 26: 9-20.

Entwisle, E.A. 1960. A Literary History of Wallpaper. London : B.T. Batsford.

Frangiamore, Catherine Lynn. 1977. Wallpapers in Historic Preservation. Washington, DC : National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.

Gilmore, Andrea M. 1981. “Wallpaper and Its Conservation: An Architectural Conservator's Perspective.” Journal of the American Institute for Conservation20(2): 74-82. Accessed June 2, 2020.

Greysmith, Brenda. 1976. Wallpaper. New York : MacMillan.

Harroun, Scott G., J. Bergman, Ed Jablonski, and Christa L. Brosseau. 2011. “Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy Analysis of House Paint and Wallpaper Samples from an 18th Century Historic Property.” Analyst 136(17): 3453-3460.

Lynn, Catherine. 1980. Wallpaper in America from the 17th Century to World War I. New York : W.W. Norton.

Mapes, Phillipa. 2015. "Historic Wallpaper Conservation." Cathedral Communications, Ltd. Accessed June 2, 2020.

Meredith, Philip, Mark Sandiford, and Phillippa Mapes. 1999. "A New Conservation Lining for Historic Wallpapers." Preprint from the 9th International Congress of IADA, Copenhagen. IADA. 41-45.

McClelland, Nancy V. 1924. Historic Wallpapers from Their Inception to the Introduction of Machinery. Philadelphia and London : J.B. Lippincott.

McClintock, T.M. 2002. “Case Studies on the Effect of Conservation on the Appearance of Historic Wallpapers.” Restaurator 23(3): 165-186. Accessed June 2, 2020.

National Park Service. 2007. "Wallpapers in Historic Preservation: History of Wallpaper Styles and their Use." Accessed June 2, 2020.

Nylander, Richard. 1983. Wallpapers for Historic Buildings. Washington, DC : The Preservation Press.

Oman, Charles C. and Jean Hamilton. 1982. Wallpapers: An International History and Illustrated Survey from the Victoria and Albert Museum. New York : Abrams.

Shelley, Marjorie. 1981. “The Conservation of the Van Rensselaer Wallpaper.” Journal of the American Institute of Conservation Volume 20(2): 126-138.

Teynac, Francoise, Pierre Nolot, and Jean-Denis Vivien. 1982. Wallpaper: A History. New York : Rizzoli International Publications.

Vitale, T. & Messier, P. 2004. “Historic Wallpaper Digitally Remastered: Early Twentieth-Century Block-Printed English Wallpaper in the Yin Yu Tang House at the Peabody Essex Museum.” The Book and Paper Group Annual 23: 109-113.

V&A. 2015. Flock Wallpapers. Accessed June 2, 2020.

Welsh, Frank S. 2004. “Investigation, Analysis, and Authentication of Historic Wallpaper Fragments.” Journal of the American Institute of Conservation 43(1): 91-110.

Restrained Papers

(See also General References)

Harding, E.G. 1986. "The 'Inlaying' of Works of Art on Paper." Letter to the editor and response from Jane McAusland. Paper Conservation News No. 40: 2-3.

Over-Sized Papers

(See also General References)

Albright, Gary E. and Thomas K. McClintock. 1982. "The Treatment of Oversize Paper Objects." Book and Paper Group Annual 1.

Eckmann, Inge-Lise. 1985. "The Lining of a Super-Sized Contemporary Drawing." In AIC Preprints. American Institute for Conservation 13th Annual Meeting, Washington DC. Washington, DC : AIC. 36-43.

Fairbrass, Sheila. 1986. "The Problems of Large Works of Art on Paper." The Paper Conservator 10(1): 3-9.

Hamm, Patricia Dacus. 1988. "Treatment of an Oversized, Hand-Drawn Shaker Map." The Book and Paper Group Annual 7: 17-22.

Nicholson, C. and Susan Page. 1988. "Machine Made Oriental Papers in Western Paper Conservation." The Book and Paper Group Annual 7: 44-51.

Owen, Antoinette. 1984. "Treatment and Mounting of a Poster Angleterre by A.M. Cassandre." Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 24(1): 23-32. Accessed June 2, 2020.

Potje, Karen. 1988. "A Travelling Exhibition of Oversized Drawings." The Book and Paper Group Annual 7: 52-57.

Volent, Paula. 1989. "Consideration in the Acquisition and Care of Oversized Contemporary Drawings." Drawing 11(2): 30-34.

Three-Dimensional Paper Objects

(See also General References)

Evetts, Debora E. 1987. "Treatment of Folded Paper Artifacts." The Book and Paper Group Annual 6: 35-39.

Florian Papp Gallery. 1989. Rolled, Scrolled, Crimpled, and Folded: The Lost Art of Filigree Paperwork. New York : Florian Papp Gallery.

Newman, Jerri, Margaret Leveque, and Leslie Smith. 1987. "An Interspeciality Approach to the Conservation of Multi-Media Objects." Preprints of Papers Presented at the 15th Annual Meeting of the AIC, Vancouver, Washington. Washington DC : AIC. 84-98.

Nichols, Kimberly, Jacki Elgar, and Karen Gausch. 2006. “Illuminating the Way: Conservation of Two Japanese Paper Lanterns.” Journal of the American Institute of Conservation 46: 123-136.

Two nineteenth-century Katsushika Hokusai paintings in the form of paper folding-lanterns were conserved for the exhibition "The Allure of Edo" at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. The paintings had been dismantled from their original mounts, and in doing so they were severely damaged. The article describes the conservation treatment and the process of determining the original shape of each lantern. Polyethylene foam mounts were made and the paintings, which were relined, were adhered to them. The treatment was successful and the article exemplifies a unique and complex treatment that returned the paintings to their intended three-dimensional format.

Tombs, Rebecca. 1982. "Three Dimensional Objects of Paper." Unpublished paper. Kingston, Ontario : Queen's University Art Conservation Program.

Fans and Screens

(See also General References)

Armstrong, Nancy. 1978. The Book of Fans. Surrey : The Colour Library International Ltd.

Kakoauei, Mina, Kakouei Ezbarami, M., and Kumaran, S., 2014. “History, Technology, and Treatment of a Painted Silk Folding Screen Belonging to the Palace-Museum of Golestan in Iran.” Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe 22(2(104)): 69-75. Accessed June 3, 2020.

This article is a case study illustrating the treatment of a historical Chinese folding screen from the Palace-Museum of Golestan in Iran. The main aim of this study was to develop the conservation treatment using paper conservation techniques as a basis. To restore the folding screen, a method often used in paper conservation was adopted. Self-adhesive heat reactivated Japanese tissue paper was attached to support the silk, in order to avoid stitching through the painted surface. Tengujo Japanese tissue, with Lascaux 498 HV diluted with water (10%) were selected for the repairs. Lascaux 498 HV has a pH of 8 – 9, great flexibility, is reversible and soluble in acetone, toluene and xylene but insoluble in water once dry. The self-adhesive tissue paper was reactivated at 50 °C with a heated spatula.

Koyano, Masako. 1979. Japanese Scroll Paintings: a Handbook of Mounting Techniques. Washington, DC: FAIC.

Maxson, Holly. 1986. "Design and Construction of a Support for a Folding Fan." The Book and Paper Group Annual 4: 33-38.

Nishio, Yoshiyuki. 2001. “Maintenance of Asian Paintings II: Minor Treatment of Scroll Paintings.” The Book and Paper Group Annual 20: 15-26.

A well explained article describing how to repair tear, areas of loss, creases and damaged chords on Asian scroll paintings. The article is aided with images, diagrams and step-by-step explanations on how to carry out treatments.

Toishi, Kenzo and H. Washizuka. 1987. Characteristics of Japanese Art That Condition Its Care. Japanese Association of Museums.

Webber, Pauline. 1984. "The Conservation of Fans." The Paper Conservator 8(1): 40-58.

Papier-Maché

(See also General References)

Moir, Gillian. 1980. "The care of papier-mâché." History News 35(6): 57-58.

van der Reyden, Dianne and Don Williams. 1992. "The History, Technology, and Care of Papier-Mache: Case Study of the Conservation Treatment of a Victorian "Japan Ware" Chair. " Smithsonian Center for Materials Research and Education.

Globes

(See also General References)

Baynes-Cope, A.D. 1985. The Study and Conservation of Globes. Vienna : Internationale Coronelli-Gesellschaft.

Lewis, Gillian, Anne Leane, and Sylvia Sumira. 1988. "Globe Conservation at the National Maritime Museum, London." The Paper Conservator 12: 3-12.

Leyshon, Kim Elizabeth. 1988. "The Restoration of a Pair of Senex Globes." The Paper Conservator 12: 13-20.

McClintock, T.K., 2002. “Observations On The Conservation Of Globes.” Studies in Conservation 47(sup3): 135-138.

Globes are also often made from plaster, wood, metal, and have varnished and painted surfaces. A conservator of globes must also have conservation knowledge on these materials in order to make the treatment credible. The article gives reasons to why the conservation of globes falls under the role of the paper conservator rather than an objects or decorative arts conservator, even though the object is not solely made out of paper. McClintock writes that it is on the globe’s paper surface that the design and function of the globe is found, and it is the paper which is the most susceptible to damage. The author also explains the structure of a globe, describing the way the paper is prepared in order to paint and varnish it, without damaging the paper, as well as the wooden and metallic components that make up its structure.

McClintock, T.K., Lorraine Bigrigg, and Deborah LaCamera. 2015. “Case study: conservation and restoration of a pair of large diameter English globes.” Journal of the Institute of Conservation 38(1): 77-91.

The globes illustrated in these case studies were in very poor condition and hard to read. This article not only looks at the conservation treatment of the globes but also at the development of filling losses using digital photography and archival printing, which helped maintain the integrity of the globes as works of cartography. It was possible to use digital photography to recreate the losses because the same globe gores were printed in an Atlas, and could be used as models to reproduce the scans.

Sumira, Sylvia.1990. "Conservation Treatment of Globe Surfaces." Cleaning, retouching and coatings: Contributions to the IIC Congress, Brussels. 56-58.

Stevenson, Edward Luther. 1921. "Terrestrial and Celestial Globes: Volumes I and II." New Haven : Yale University Press.

van Der Reyden, Dianne. 1988. "The Technology and Treatment of a Nineteenth Century American Time-Globe." The Paper Conservator 12: 21-30.

Varnished Wall Maps

Boodle, Katie. 2024. "The 'One-Day' Conservation Treatment Method for Wall Maps at the Northeast Document Conservation Center." Book and Paper Group Annual Special Issue: 1 - 9.

Boodle, Katie and Natalia Paskova. 2024. "An Investigation into Alternative Recreations for Surface Coatings on 19th-Century Wall Maps After Conservation Treatment." Book and Paper Group Annual Special Issue: 10 - 20.

Brückner, Martin. 2024. "Varnished Maps and Social Chemistry in Early America: A Material History." Book and Paper Group Annual Special Issue: 21 - 38.

Edmondson, Thomas M. 2024. "An Aqueous Alternative for the Removal of Varnish from 19th Century Wall-maps." Book and Paper Group Annual Special Issue: 39 - 41.

Hendry, Heather. 2024. "Varnished Maps Treatment Protocol at the Conservation Center for Art and Historic Artifacts." Book and Paper Group Annual Special Issue: 42 - 50.

Irwin, Seth. 2024. "Mapping the Crossroads: The Conservation of County Wall Maps from the Indiana State Library." Book and Paper Group Annual Special Issue: 51 - 62.

Schneider, Cher. 2024. "ICA Treatment of Map of Pike County Ohio." Book and Paper Group Annual Special Issue: 63 - 68.

Stockman, Denise, Emma Guerard, Malena Ramsay, and Eleonora Del Federico. 2024. "Initial Characterization of Wall Map Varnishes Using UVA, Solubility Tests, and ATR FTIR." Book and Paper Group Annual Special Issue: 69 - 77.

Wanser, Heather, and Holly Krueger. 2024. "Treatment of a 19thc Varnished Map in the Library of Congress Geography and Map Division." Book and Paper Group Annual Special Issue: 78 - 81.

Zukor, Karen. 2024. "Temporary Facings on a Varnished Wall Map." Book and Paper Group Annual Special Issue: 82 - 84.

Traditional Non-Paper Supports

(See also General References)

Bell, Lilian. 1985. Papyrus, Tape, Amatl, and Rice Paper; Papermaking in Africa, the Pacific, Latin America and Southeast Asia. 2nd edition. McMinnville, Oregon : Liliacea Press.

Lenz, Hans. 1948. El Papel Indigena Mexicano, Historia y Supervivencia. English translation by H. Murray Cambell. Mexico DF : Rafael Loeray Chaven. (Amate)

de Sahagún, Fray Bernardino. 1963. Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain. Translated by Charles Dibble and Arthur J.O. Anderson. Santa Fe : School of American Research and the Museum of Mexico. (Amate)

Papyrus

(See also General References)

See BPG Papyrus Bibliography

Elliott, Frances and Eric Harding. 1987. "A Modern Approach to Papyrus Conservation: Materials and Techniques as Applied at the British Museum." The Paper Conservator 11: 63-68.

Evans, Debra, Doris A. Hamburg, and Meredith P. Mickelson. 1983. "A Papyrus Treatment: Bringing the Book of the Dead to Life." In Art Conservation Programs Training Conference, Newark, Delaware. University of Delaware : 109-126.

Grasselli, Jeanette. 1983. "Papyrus: The Paper of Ancient Egypt." Analytical Chemistry 55(12): 1220A–1230A.

Noack, Gisela. 1986. "Conservation of Yale's Papyrus Collection." The Book and Paper Group Annual 4: 61-73.

Sturman, Shelly. 1987. "Investigations into the Manufacture and Identification of Papyrus." Recent Advances in the Conservation and Analysis of Artifacts. London : University of London, Summer Schools Press. 263-265.

Includes extensive bibliography.

Palm Leaf

(See also General References)

Lawson, Peter. 1983. "Conservation of Palm Leaf Books." Library Conservation News 36: 14-19.

Van Dyke, Y. 2009. “Sacred Leaves: The Conservation and Exhibition of Early Buddhist Manuscripts on Palm Leaves”. The Book and Paper Group Annual 28: 83-97.

The article describes the material composition and preparation of a collection of Indian paintings on palm leaf and paper, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The author describes in detail the different types of palm leaves and their physical properties as well as the methods used to process the leaves to make them suitable to paint on. These methods include: smoking, soaking, being boiled in water, hung over a charcoal fire and dried by the sun or kiln.

The pigments were identified, though the method of identification was not mentioned, and due to the brittle nature of the palm leaf these pigments had to be consolidated. The choice of consolidant was made based on the desired working properties, which included strength, ageing, flexibility, viscosity, aesthetic and penetration. Gelatines and methyl cellulose were tested on the manuscript but they were not strong enough, left tidelines and dried glossy. Isinglass was chosen and used as a warm solution at 1%, this adhesive proved to be the best consolidant for both the flaking paint and the actual palm leaf. The leaves were humidified to rehydrate them and reduce the planar distortion, once humidified the leaves were less brittle so they could be more easily repaired using acrylic-dyed Japanese tengujo papers. The article also described the ethical consideration made when treating these objects, the storage solutions adopted to safely house the manuscript, and the exhibition conditions including mounting and display.

The paper is a very detailed and comprehensive conservation case study, which included the historical context of the object, material analysis, ethical considerations and future storage recommendations. Though the paper was aimed at professionals in conservation, the article appeals to a wider audience, providing useful information to researchers, historians and curators; this added importance to the content as it promoted interdisciplinary collaboration and awareness.

Parchment

(See also General References)

Abt, Jeffrey and Margaret Fusco. 1989. "A Byzantine Scholar's Letter on the Preparation of Manuscript Vellum." Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 28(2): 61-66. Accessed June 1, 2020.

Cains, Anthony. 1982. "Repair Treatments for Vellum Manuscripts." The Paper Conservator 7(1): 15-23.

Chahine, Claire. 1988. "Le Parchemin." In Conservation at the Archives: International Conference Proceeding, Ottawa. Ottawa : International Council on Archives. 11-24.

Clarkson, Christopher. 1987. "Preservation and Display of Single Parchment Leaves and Fragments."Conservation of Library and Archive Materials and The Graphic Arts. Guy Petherbridge, ed. London : Butterworths.

Forstmeyer, Kerstin. 2012. “Parchment Leafcasting Revisited.” Journal of the Institute of Conservation:35(2): 219-229.

The repair of a difficult area of loss on a piece of parchment can achieved by using a vacuum table and making a suspension of animal collagen fibres to create ‘reconstituted parchment’. The technique of wet-casting pulp dispersions on an object is discussed, as well as the application of reconstituted parchment with different adhesives, and methods of dyeing the fill to achieve the most appropriate colour.

Munn, Jesse. 1989. "Treatment Techniques for the Vellum Covered Furniture of Carlo Bugatti." The Book and Paper Group Annual 8: 27-38.

Reed, Ronald. 1972. Ancient Skins, Parchments and Leathers. London : Seminar Press.

Pith Paper

(See also General References)

Lee, Mary Wood. 1990. "Conservation Treatment of Structural Damage to Pith Paintings." Paper presented at the AIC 18th Annual Meeting, Richmond, Virginia.

Perdue, Robert E., Jr. and Charles J. Kraebel. 1961. "The Rice-Paper Plant - Tetrapanax Papyriferum (Hook) Koch." Economic Botany 15(2): 165-179.

Rickman, Catherine. 1988. "Conservation of Chinese Export Works of Art on Paper: Watercolors and Wallpaper." The Conservation of Far Eastern Art: Preprints of Contributions to the Kyoto Congress. London : IIC. 44-51.

Tapa

(See also General References)

Green, Sara Wolf. 1987. "Conservation of Tapa Cloth: Filling Voids." The Paper Conservator 11: 58-62.

Green, Sara Wolf. 1986. "Conservation of Tapa Cloth from the Pacific." Preprints of Papers Presented at the 14th Annual Meeting of the AIC, Chicago, IL. 17-31, with earlier bibliography.

Drafting Cloth

(See also General References)

Douglas, Robyn. 1989. "Architectural Drawings on Drafting Cloth." Unpublished report. Kingston : Queen's University Art Conservation Program.

Lathrop, Alan. 1980. "The Provenance and Preservation of Architectural Records." The American Archivist 43(3): 325-380.

Contemporary Non-Paper Drawing Supports

(See also General References)

Hodges, E., ed. 1988. The Guild Handbook of Scientific Illustration. New York : Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Williams, R. Scott. 1987. CCT Analytical Report: ARS Analytical Report No. 2631, Geofilm. CCI Registry File No. 7034 18-11. Ottawa, Canada : Canadian Conservation Institute.

History of This Page

BPG Wiki
In 2009, the Foundation for Advancement in Conservation (FAIC) launched the AIC Wiki with funding assistance from the National Center for Preservation Technology and Training (NCPTT), a division of the National Parks Service. Along with catalogs from other specialty groups, the published Paper Conservation Catalog and the unpublished Book Conservation Catalog were transcribed into a Wiki environment. In 2017, Jennifer Evers reformatted this page by removing the legacy numbered outline format and improving internal links.

Paper Conservation Catalog (print edition 1984-1994)
Prior to the creation of the AIC Conservation Wiki, this page was created in 1990 as Chapter 4: Support Problems of the 7^th edition of the Paper Conservation Catalog, (print edition 1984-1994) by the following:

Compilers: Thea Burns (Jirat-Wasiutynski) and Karen Potje.

Contributors: Nancy E. Ash, Konstanze Bachmann, Cynthia Ball, Karl D. Buchberg, Robyn Douglas, Katherine G. Eirk, Theresa Fairbanks, Lynn Gilliland, Michele Hamill, Penny Jenkins, Anne Maheux, Jesse Munn, Yoshiyuki Nishio, Susan Page, Lois Olcott Price, Catherine Rickman, Christine Smith, Martha Smith, Rebecca Tombs, Elizabeth C. Wendelin.

Editorial Board Liaison: Antoinette Dwan, Kimberly Schenck.

Editorial Board: Sylvia R. Albro, Sarah Bertalan, Antoinette Dwan, Meredith Mickelson, Catherine I. Maynor, Kitty Nicholson, Kimberly Schenck, Ann Seibert, Dianne van der Reyden, Terry Boone Wallis.